Europe’s land and resources are some of the most used and developed in the world. Approximately 80 percent of the land is used in some way: for agriculture, residential use, manufacturing or other human purposes. Europe’s population density often led to competition for land and resources. The European colonization of parts of North America, South America, Africa, Asia and Australia was driven by many factors, but the end goal was to achieve control over certain resources. Today, many countries in Europe continue to use political and economic influence to gain access to resources from around the world.

For centuries, European countries vied with one another for world power, but today, the relationship among many of these countries is marked by cooperation and collaboration. The European Union (EU) was formed in 1993 and, as of 2024, has 27 member nations. Among other goals, these nations agree to work together to facilitate economic integration and development, and to share resources.

Agriculture

European countries in similar climatic regions often produce the same agricultural products. Countries with a Mediterranean climate, such as Spain, Greece and Italy, are the top olive producers in the world. Grapes are also a major crop; Spain, Italy and France are the world’s largest wine producers. Corn is grown farther north in France, northern Italy, Romania and Bulgaria. Grains, such as barley, are important crops in Great Britain, northern Germany, Poland, and southern Sweden and Finland.

Some of Europe’s main crops are being threatened by the effects of climate change. Some scientists have predicted that Mediterranean countries will get less rainfall as global temperatures continue to rise, because the Mediterranean basin is warming at a much faster rate than the global average. Several wine producers have already pointed to the impact on the wine industry, and experts have cautioned that by 2100, over 90 percent of traditional wine regions in Europe will be unsuitable for wine production. This represents not only an economic threat, but also the loss of important cultural traditions. Farmers in the Burgundy region of France, for instance, can trace early harvests of grapes back more than 600 years through ledgers, and the history of wine production dates back even further.

Grape farmers are not the only farmers who have been concerned about the future in Europe. In the early 2020s, farmers rose up in a movement to protest new environmental legislation meant to combat climate change, the loss of government subsidies for agriculture, and proposed trade agreements with Australia and New Zealand that Europe’s farmers felt were unfair. In some cases, these protests have led to violence. In the spring of 2024, in Brussels, Belgium (where the EU is headquartered) protesters threw beets and manure at police, who responded with tear gas and water cannons.

There have been similar controversies over livestock production. In the 2010s and early 2020s, livestock production in Europe declined, at least in part due to a cultural push to eat less red meat and more fruits and vegetables. At the same time, however, about 80 percent of EU subsidies went to livestock producers, a controversial policy because animal agriculture is a significant source of carbon emissions. Policies proposed to curb climate change have been met with resistance from dairy farmers and other livestock producers who view the proposals as a threat to their livelihood.

Forestry and Fishing

Forestry, the management of trees and other vegetation in forests, is an important industry in Europe. Roughly 40 percent of Europe is forested, though this varies greatly by country; Finland, for instance, is around 70 percent forest, while Malta is just 1 percent forest. The logging and forestry industry nets about 25 billion euros a year. Although forestry is important to some rural countries, such as Finland and Sweden, overall it amounts to less than 1 percent of the EU’s gross domestic product (GDP).

Europe’s most important forest industries are woodworking, paper products, and construction and furniture products. Europe also has a thriving non-wood forestry sector, which includes mushroom and truffle gathering, fruit and berry collection, honey harvesting and medicinal plant cultivation. Non-wood forest harvesting has a long history, which can be traced back to different waves of migration through Europe, starting in the hunter-gatherer era. To this day, there remains a strong culture of foraging in different European countries, such as mushroom gathering in Scotland. Despite these contributions to both the economy and culture of Europe, this sector has not been well-studied by scientists or economists, and it is likely that non-wood forest products generate more income for Europe than has been observed.

Another important non-wood forest product in Europe is cork. Cork trees grow primarily in Portugal, where exports generate around 1.2 billion euros a year. Cork has grown in demand in recent years because of its sustainability and its use in a wide range of products from shoes to insulation to flooring. Cork is made from the bark of a cork tree, which is removed without the need to cut down the tree. Thus, cork forests can continue to grow and soak up carbon. Cork trees are, however, still vulnerable to rising temperatures, disease and wildfires.

Europe represents roughly 3 percent of global fisheries and aquaculture production. Wild catches are taken primarily in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Important catches include Atlantic herring, sprat, blue whiting and Atlantic mackerel. Denmark, France, Spain and the Netherlands lead the way in Europe’s wild fish catches. Aquaculture, the farming of freshwater and marine species in controlled environments, is also an important industry in Europe. About 1 million tons of fish are produced by aquaculture each year. The main types of farmed fish include trout, carp and shellfish, such as mussels and oysters.

European fish production has decreased over the last 20 years, in part due to overfishing, particularly in the Mediterranean near Greece and Turkey. Overfishing not only threatens the survival of popular species of fish, but it can also destroy entire food systems and habitats.

Mining and Drilling

Europe overall is not a major producer of metals because much of their reserves were mined earlier in history. Gaining access to minerals was a motivating factor for several European countries’ colonization efforts in other parts of the world. During its colonial era, England had huge mining operations in South Africa, and France operated significant coal mines in Vietnam. Control of these resources had devastating effects on the indigenous people of these colonized countries. For example, Germany’s search for diamonds in the region now known as Namibia resulted in the genocide of the Nama and Herero peoples. Europe’s mining practices have also had devastating impacts on human rights and the environment. Some experts argue that these exploitative relationships continue today. .

Europe is dependent on other nations for much of their metal supply, including rare earth metals. This could have huge implications for the future, because these metals are used in a wide range of technology products, including the rechargeable batteries needed for electric cars and renewable energy technologies, such as wind turbines. Many European countries were receiving some of their metal supply from Russia, but the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has led to sanctions on specific materials. Large deposits of rare earth minerals have been found in Norway and Sweden, but localities have opposed extraction because of concerns about the environmental impact. The Sami people, the major indigenous group in Sweden, worry that mining in their area will harm their ability to follow migrating reindeer, a centuries-old practice that is an important part of their culture.

Europe has limited deposits of oil and natural gas, which are drilled for energy and fuel. Many European countries, particularly those in Central and Eastern Europe, rely on Russia for oil and natural gas. Russia has large deposits of oil in Siberia and other parts of the eastern side of the country. It is also one of the world’s largest exporters of natural gas. After Russia invaded Ukraine, European countries took measures to reduce their dependence on Russia and began looking to other countries for natural gas and oil production. Norway has significant oil deposits, and it is already a major exporter of natural gas. The United Kingdom is among the countries with offshore drilling stations. Experts say that ocean drilling is where European countries are likely to find more oil and natural gas, but offshore drilling is detrimental to the environment. European environmentalists have expressed concerns about water pollution and carbon emissions. In addition, activists protest offshore drilling because of the risk of oil spills, which could harm sea life and destroy ecosystems. Additionally, oil companies use loud sound blasts to search for oil deposits, which disrupts dolphins, whales and other marine life.

Industry and Innovation

Europe is mostly organized into cities, with 72 percent of EU residents living in urban areas. Many European cities have buildings and infrastructure that were constructed hundreds of years ago. Much of Europe’s industry and innovation thus lies in updating and retrofitting existing cities.

An example of one such project is the Venice Tide Barrier Project, also referred to as the MOSE system. Venice, Italy is built on a series of islands on the Adriatic Sea, and it lies at sea level. Due to the effects of climate change, the sea level is rising, threatening to flood the historic city permanently. The MOSE system is a set of barriers that rise during flood conditions to stop excess water from entering the lagoon where Venice is located. Though the system has prevented some flooding, there are concerns that it is also slowly destroying the lagoon ecosystem. Without water flowing freely in and out of the area, Venice’s lagoon could turn into a saltwater pond or even a network of largely disconnected lakes. Local Venetians have different feelings about the project, with some believing it has damaged the environment, others thinking it is essential for the survival of the city, and others frustrated that the barriers activate at a water level that is higher than many parts of the city, leaving their homes and businesses as vulnerable to flooding as ever.

Some European cities are investing in innovative technology to address the challenges of city life and to improve sustainability. Tallinn, Estonia, for example, has become a major technology hub. Formerly part of the Soviet Union, Tallinn became the capital of an independent Estonia in 1991. In the 2000s, companies founded by Estonians, such as Skype, began using Tallinn as a business site, drawing more technology companies to the city. Leaders also began launching programs to make the city more environmentally friendly, such as redesigning streets to include more green spaces. It has also been focused on creating public transportation that is both easy to use and low in emissions. In 2023, Tallinn was named the European Green Capital for its work in technology and environmental sustainability. It also invited companies from other parts of Europe to use their city as a test subject for the technology they are developing. Projects to better monitor traffic flow and to measure and reduce city noise were some of the innovations that were tested in Tallinn.

Challenges

Because so much of the land in Europe has been affected by urbanization and development, a major challenge has been to manage resources in a way that balances the need for sustainability and environmental protection with the economic, social and cultural needs of the population. This challenge is playing out in many cities across Europe, as buildings and streets that have existed for hundreds of years are being retrofitted to be more sustainable, and new infrastructure is being carefully planned to meet the needs of present and future populations. Many cities in Europe are leading the way in making streets more eco-friendly by adding bike lanes; during the COVID-19 pandemic, Brussels, Belgium, and London, England, both made major investments in bike lanes. Cities also are using incentives to encourage owners to renovate older buildings to improve efficiency and reduce energy consumption. In 2020, Lille, France, for instance, provided funds to homeowners for sustainable renovations.

Other European cities are strategizing how to best meet the future needs of their population, through urban planning initiatives like the 15-minute city. These “15-minute cities,” such as Tallinn, Estonia, have been implementing plans that would enable residents of the city to have access to their basic needs within 15 minutes via environmentally friendly transportation.

There are many challenges to these efforts, however. Most of these initiatives are costly, requiring millions of euros. Balancing the needs of different groups, particularly those who are traditionally marginalized, also presents significant challenges. For example, in 2020, the government of Lisbon, Portugal proposed giving tax credits to landlords of short-term rentals if they turned their property into sustainable housing for people earning a lower income. Short-term rental companies pushed back, saying that landlords would not be able to make enough money to support their families under the city’s plan.

Another resource-related challenge for European countries is meeting the needs of marginalized groups, particularly immigrants and refugees. Because countries in Europe are in close proximity, refugees from conflict-prone and economically disadvantaged areas have long fled to Europe, and the receiving nations have responded in different ways. For instance, when Russia invaded Ukraine in 2022, many European nations in the eastern side of the continent, such as Poland, welcomed Ukrainian refugees, but when the Taliban took back control of Afghanistan after the withdrawal of the United States in 2021, these same countries limited the number of Afghan refugees they would allow entry.

Europe is also home to several groups that have been marginalized throughout history. The Romany people, an ethnic group that likely originated in Northern India and later spread throughout Europe, were enslaved in many regions. Even after slavery ended, the Romany continued to face persecution. Today, the Romany experience high levels of poverty and frequently live in poor communities with little access to services and resources. They tend to have worse health outcomes than other demographic groups in the same country, and often do not have electricity or running water at home. Romany people also have low educational attainment; few Romany graduate high school.

European countries have used resources within and beyond the continent to develop economically and politically stable communities, but many groups have been left out of the equation. Better integration of immigrants, migrants and traditionally marginalized groups is an ongoing challenge for European nations.